Reaching the child with autism, through music

By Emma Schaeffer

Music Therapy With The Developmentally Handicapped (Folkways)

Conversation and music-making have a number of things in common—the rhythm of the words, the rise and fall of tone, the changing of pitch, the back and forth turn-taking.  Despite this, most of us would not choose to communicate with each other through singing and playing instruments rather than speaking.  Spoken conversation is what is most natural to us.  But for those suffering from autistic spectrum disorder, ordinary communication, or even verbal communication, may not be an option.

People suffering from autism are essentially characterized as being “shut-in” from the rest of the world.  They have difficulties with social communication and interaction, restrictions of imagination and social repertoire, and behavioral problems.  Lower functioning autistics may be speech impaired, or incapable of verbal communication.  Higher functioning autistics may have normal development aside from social issues, and even show advanced skill in an area such as mathematics or art.  However, in either of these cases, communication with others poses an issue. This is where music therapy may prove useful (Graham, 2001).

Music therapy is designed to be very personalized, in order to promote one-on-one interaction and demonstrate a functioning two-person relationship.  It tends to focus on spontaneous improvisation—the idea is not to enhance musical ability; any musical talent that is acquired is merely a side effect (Bell, 2008).  The basic intent is to create an environment in which the client feels comfortable making their own contributions, mixing those contributions with those of the therapist (taking turns), and exploring.  This environment provides the client with a place in which they can connect and communicate on a more advanced level than they usually would, and works to improves their communication issues in everyday life.  Music is effective as a communication device on multiple levels.  Not only does it imitate social interactions, its patterned nature also appeals to the autistic mind, which tends to form patterns and gravitate towards patterns and structure in the external world.  For this reason, even patients with sound sensitivities may benefit from and enjoy music therapy (Gold, Wigram, & Elefant, 2006).

Taking your color temperature

By Michelle Fisher

Boutet's 7-color and 12-color color circles from 1708 courtesy of Wikipedia

We have all heard the question, “What’s your favorite color?” at some point in time, usually on an online personality test. While there are those of us who believe this to have some sort of basis, there are others who are more skeptical. What makes us associate black with evil, white with purity, and blue with peace? Why do we like some colors better than others? (http://www.infoplease.com/spot/colors.html) Is any of this color nonsense relevant? A recent study suggests that it is. The study found that colors can have an effect on perception of individuals in a purchasing environment; essentially, cool colors yield more positive purchasing results (Yildirim, Akalin-Baskaya, & Hidayetoglu, 2007). It would seem perceptions of colors can impact your mood.

Wexner (1954) conducted a study to determine what colors we associate with adjectives that possessed the same meaning as the mood-tone. Participants in the experiment were asked to choose the color that best fit each word group (which consisted of the mood-tone and adjectives). As most people might expect, black was associated with power, yellow with cheerfulness, and so on. What is interesting is that the intensity of the color affected which colors were associated with which words.  In other words, how dark (or light) the color was determined if it was appropriate to associate it with a word, such as dignified.

In a separate study, it was found that color also has an effect on the way that we react to and perceive various scenes, particularly when the structure of a scene is obscured in some way (Castelhano & Henderson, 2007). How is this related to Wexner’s experiment? This indicates that atmosphere of a room and the mood we get when in a room is altered by the color, very much in agreement with the study done by Yildirim, et al. (2007), where the structural elements in the area weren’t changed.

The deadliest drug

By Danielle Nedivi

China by babasteve

It’s a question that we have all wondered about at some point. No matter if we are active users, casual dabblers, or outside observers- the mystery confounds in all contexts: why do people smoke cigarettes? Today, virtually everyone in the United States knows that smoking is bad. School programs, public service ads, flyers, doctors- even the cigarette boxes themselves- have drilled that into our brains incessantly enough. Yellow teeth, wrinkles, short breath, not to mention heart disease, lung disease, cancer- the list is seemingly endless. And yet, despite all of the well-known detrimental consequences, smoking is still very much a prevalent activity throughout the US, with the young generations just as much as the old.

According to the American Cancer Society, more than 3,500 people younger than 18 try their first cigarette every single day, and 1,100 others become regular daily smokers. About one-third of these kids will later die from a smoking-related disease. Considering that we all know about this deadly effect, why try that fateful first cigarette in the first place? The answers vary from person to person, but overall they tend to cover the same ground. Some studies have shown social influences from peers to be a major cause. Powell (2005) showed that moving a high-school student from a school where no children smoked to a school where one quarter of the youths smoked would increase the probability that he or she smoked by about 14.5%. Overall, based on 2007 data from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 20% of high school students smoke. Many prefer not to feel left out or appear antisocial by not taking risks or trying new things, and they are willing to compromise their health to achieve that crucial sense of belonging. The health-deteriorating factor of cigarettes is too elusive and vaguely far off to feel critical- if anything, their immediate effects are mostly positive.

Smoking provides many enticements on top of its well-advertised drawbacks.  Cigarettes stimulate receptor sites for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and provide a short term boost in dopamine levels.  The results can be a  temporary yet immediate calm and solace to a smoker . They can also render potentially awkward moments such as breaks from conversation natural (Dichter, 1947). They provide a smoky, mature voice and a feeling of sophistication and nonchalance. That society has brought many to believe that smoking is “cool” does not help matters. In media from films to books to songs, from GQ photo spreads to “Breakfast at Tiffany’s,” the smoker is usually presented as an alluring rebel worth striving to imitate. “Chain smoking” and “clove cigarettes” have become unpredictably glorified terms. At least at the moment, the image of the slightly neurotic, jaded, risk-taking smoker is trendy, and people will go far to emulate it. Even in college, where we believe students are not only more intelligent and mature but also less impressionable, cigarettes still appear all over the place and incite a mystique the influence of which is difficult to shake off, even for those who had successfully avoided the offender thus far (Reed, 2006) .

The fundamental thing

by 105 Student

25/365 Days - Violin by athena.

When an object is struck, the energy from the strike transfers to the molecules of the object, causing them to vibrate.  These vibrations produce sinusoidal waves that carry to our ears and are then interpreted as sound in our brain (Taylor, 1992). But when the object vibrates, it is actually doing so at multiple frequencies at once, producing many waves our brain perceives as one sound.  So contrary to the single note we hear, the sound is actually composed of waves vibrating at many frequencies simultaneously, producing multiple pitches.  Of these pitches, the lowest one (the slowest frequency produced) we refer to as the “fundamental frequency”: the pitches above this frequency are called “overtones.”  Mathematically, these overtones are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (at least when the sound is harmonic, meaning it contains a distinctive pitch/tone).  For example, if a string vibrates 110 times a second (110Hz), the overtones would be 2×110 (220Hz), 3×110(330Hz), and so forth until the overtones became too high for us to hear.  Again, though, our brain perceives all of these frequencies as one pitch, the fundamental frequency(Levitin, 2007).

In fact, our brains are so adapted to this phenomenon that, even without the presence of the fundamental frequency (such as when a note is artificially simulated with all pitches except the fundamental), we would still perceive the sound as the original note, the fundamental pitch.  For example, if a scientist wanted to create a note with the fundamental frequency of 210Hz, the scientist could actually create this sound by simulating 210’s overtones (420Hz, 630Hz, 840Hz, …) to create a hybrid note that, while lacking the fundamental, still sounds just like the fundamental pitch, 210Hz. This phenomenon where our brain fills in the missing sound is called restoration of the missing fundamental (Levitin, 2007).
In an experiment by Petr Janata (1997), electrodes were placed in the inferior colliculus (part of the auditory system) of a barn owl. A version of Strauss’s “The Blue Danube Waltz” simulated with all but the notes’ fundamental frequency was then played for the owl.  The electrodes output (what the owl’s brain was essentially perceiving), was played back via a small amplifier.  What was heard was “The Blue Danube Waltz,” fundamental frequency and all, indicating that the brain, with or without the actual pitch, will hear the fundamental frequency.  The neurons in our inferior colliculus actually fire at the same rate as the missing frequency.  

Thinking about animal minds (and vice versa?)

By Danielle Sloan

Cheeky Hybrid Capuchin Monkey (Cebus) by Phillip Ritz

What makes human cognition unique from that of other animals? This question is far from new and has an extensive history here at Vassar, where Margaret Floy Washburn spent her career searching for possible answers. In her 1908 book, The Animal Mind, she expressed her belief that gaining knowledge on animal cognition is highly similar to doing so on our own, both being derived by the inference of observed behavior. She believed that our actions vary from the actions of animals by degree and not by kind.

Recently, Marc Hauser, professor of psychology, biological anthropology, and organismic and evolutionary biology in Harvard’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, has theorized that there may indeed be specific differences in mental capacity between humans and non-humans (Hauser, 2005). Hauser has conducted research in various fields of cognitive science including animal behavior and communication, the evolution of language, domain-specific systems of knowledge, and morality. He says this so-called “humaniqueness” is a set of evolved mechanisms that differentiate human and animal thought. These mechanisms consist of key differences which make humans capable of creating imaginative solutions to new problems. The four unique elements of human thought are the ability to combine and recombine various types of information and knowledge to gain new understanding; to apply the same solution to one problem to a different situation; to create and understand symbolic representations of computation and sensory data; and to separate modes of thought from raw sensory and perceptual data.

According to Hauser, these key abilities have created new paths of evolution that other animals have not utilized, creating the foundation upon which cultural evolution has been constructed. He believes that animals have “laser beam” intelligence, in which there are specific solutions for specific problems. In reference to tool-use, a specific tool has a specific function. In comparison, humans have “floodlight” intelligence, which allows us to apply a certain solution to multiple problems. Other animals are capable of this kind of intelligence, but in highly limited ways when compared with humans. Hauser says the cognitive gap between humans and other “smart species” such as chimps, elephants, and dolphins is “greater than that between those animals and worms”.

A certain sense of morality

By Victoria Velasco

train wreck by woodleywonderworks

The train problem consists of two scenarios. In the first, one must pull a lever to direct a moving train away from five people and toward one person, and in the second, one must push a person under a train, thereby stopping it in time to save five people. In a wide survey, many people regarded the option in the first scenario to be ethical, however, an overwhelming number of subjects strongly dissented the morality of the second scenario, yet they were unable to articulate the ethical difference from the first scenario (Hauser, Cushman & Young, 1997). In both situations one is asked to harm one for the good of the community. The sources of this inconsistency are, according to a recent article by Steven Pinker, universal morals.

In a recent study, fMRI’s monitored brain activity when subjects were presented with the “train problem” (Greene, 2001). In all subjects considering the first scenario, only the area of the frontal lobes linked to logic, showed any signs of excessive activity. However, when presented with the second scenario, the medial area of the frontal lobes, linked to interpersonal emotions, as well as that linked to logic and the anterior cingulate cortex, which registers conflicts between different urges. These findings, as well as those of the previous study illustrate moral battle between emotions and logic, and the universal victory of emotions.

Another experiment on universal morality focused on Rhesus monkeys illustrates the sense of community and avoidance of harm of community members (Masserman, 1964). Operator monkeys were trained to pull a chain to receive food, and another chain when signaled with a red and blue light, respectively, however on the fourth day of the experiment, the monkeys were paired, and when the operator monkey pulled the chains, the other would receive a shock. Two-thirds of the monkeys showed discretion in pulling the chains, especially after receiving the shocks, and if they had previous interaction with their pair, and many of the monkeys even avoided pulling the chains to feed themselves.

The evolution of ADHD

by Eric Schuman

Photo by by Ptit@l

Research has shown that ADHD (Attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder)  is strongly influenced by genes. It seems as if it is related to a problem within the dopamine reward system of the brain. Difficulties with this system could be the  reason that people with ADHD and ADD (attention deficit disorder) seem to have trouble staying focused.

The bad side of  ADHD is pretty obvious: It makes people seem unfocused, hyperactive. But new research proposes that it has benefits. Why else would the genes associated with ADHD still be in the gene pool?  Researchers Dan Eisenberg of Northwestern University and Ben Campbell of the University of Wisconson, Milwakee, think they have an answer. In a study published in BMC Evolutionary Biology, they posit that the sort of activities associated with ADHD—a want of novelty, behavioral flexibility, being hyper-aware in environments—were in fact advantageous to nomadic herdsman. They  go on to link ADHD to obesity. In the modern world where a scarcity of food (for many but clearly not all) no longer exists, dis-inhibition of seeking pleasure from things like food become exaggerated, leading to obesity. Many  children with ADHD have higher BMI’s (body mass index) than their peers, before they go on  medications that often lead to weight loss, they point out.

Campbell, Eisenberg and their collegues (2008) studied a tribe in Kenya. One half had stayed nomadic, and the other had become agricultural. They  explain that within a nomadic context, the ADHD genes are beneficiary. When in a more sedentary context, those same genes result in increased weight and malnutrition. This allele that contains these genes is, of course, connected with ADHD. Therefore, it seems ADHD is both positive and negative.

Mindful meditation mitigates misery

by Carson Robinson

7 - Meditation by connerdowney

This past fall, I took a free, six-session meditation course offered at my college. The particular program was based on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), which integrates Buddhist and scientific approaches to stress.  Each session was 90 minutes long, and involved both discussions and exercises, including supine, seated and walking meditation, guided by occasional instructions.

MBSR fosters several general attitudes, derived from Buddhism. For example, “beginner’s mind” perceives everything as if for the first time, “non-judgment” is neutral observation of one’s own actions and experiences, and “non-striving” is letting go of objectives, especially in the practice of meditation itself. Mindfulness itself is the maintenance of attention in the context of these attitudes. During seated meditation, the program’s central activity, one concentrates in turn on the breath, the body, sound, and, finally, thoughts.

Meditation takes discipline; a consistent practice must continue for weeks, even months, before it starts to change you. It is frustrating, especially for the restless and distracted (the very people that the program was designed for!). The classic seated posture hurts the knees, and I often experienced an inexplicable dysphoria build during meditation, as well as the recurring concern: “is this really worth doing?”

MBSR was developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn, a professor at University of Massachussetts Medical School, who began teaching the course in 1979. The complete course is much more intense than the one I took, and MBSR is intended not only to relieve the stress of college life, but the suffering of serious medical conditions. MBSR is eight weeks long, with weekly two-hour sessions, several additional classes and meditation as homework (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992).

Attentional blindness (please do not read while operating heavy machinery)

By Will Jobs

Far too often a driver’s wandering mind results in an accident due to failure to notice a traffic sign or signal. When we hear a bird singing it takes us a few moments to locate it in the tree we already have in our field of vision. These are just two examples of how our conscious attention is selective — that is, we can only focus on a limited part of our sensory input (Myers, 2006). This results in an interesting phenomenon called inattentional blindness, failure to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere, and it is the basis of some optical illusions (Myers, 2006).  The color changing card trick in the video below is a nice example.

This is an illustration of  change blindness, the failure to notice a change in a scene after a brief visual disturbance (Myers, 2006). In most cases our change detection is good because the change is visible as it happens, but in cases where the change is accompanied by a distraction or is momentarily hidden detection often fails (Simons & Ambinder, 2005). In a study by Rensink, O’Regan, and Clark (1997) an image and a modified version of it were alternated with an intervening blank screen lasting 80 milliseconds. While changes in areas that tended to garner attention were noticed relatively quickly, changes in areas of marginal interest required dozens of alternations before identification, illustrating that change is perceived only when attention is directed to where the change occurs (Rensink, et al., 1997). Another such study by O’Regan, Rensink, and Clark (1999)  showed that even small obstructions in viewing that do not obscure the change (like mud splashing on the windshield of a car) can induce change blindness.

Reasons to spend your summer gaming. Or not.

by Aaron Suzuka

Robb's 40th Birthday Party by Abraxas3d

Common game titles such as Mortal Kombat, Grand Theft Auto, Call of Duty, Doom, and Medal of Honor have been blamed for an increase of campus tragedies and youth violence. The two perpetrators of the Columbine tragedy, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, were known players of Doom, often reenacting and videotaping violent scenarios similar to the game (Anderson and Dill, 2000).  A number of studies have looked at links between video games and violence.

[Editor's note: Earlier posts have explored the links between video games and violence, spatial skills, business acumen, and post-traumatic stress disorder.]

The General Affective Aggression Model (GAAM) has been used to show a correlation between video games and an increase of aggression in teenagers (Anderson and Dill, 2000).  Subjects were required to spend a certain amount of time playing video games while the researchers observed changes in their behavior throughout the study.  Through the GAAM tests, Anderson and Dill observed that exposure to violence via video games  (Mortal Kombat in the study) was related to an increase in irritability and aggressive behavior.

Another underlying factor in the correlation of video games and violent behavior is video game addiction.   Although true addictions are  associated with alcohol and other drugs, researchers have seen addictive behaviors such as compulsive cravings and use in children who are obsessed with video games.  In Amsterdam, some teens and adults are actually undergoing “detox” for their video cravings. Gaming addiction spawns from a “rush,” similar that in gambling which showed signs of elevated dopamine levels in the brain.  Despite no outside drugs entering the system, the children soon depend on the “rush” and excitement to get through the day or to escape problems in their lives (Rauh, 2006).  Whether it’s a YouTube video of a child screaming at his parents for interrupting his game play  or your college roommate who stays up till the wee hours of the night, the problems are evident.  Along with video game addiction comes factor that could spurn violent behavior: antisocial tendencies, lying to friends and family, and irritability (Rauh, 2006).