Thinking about animal minds (and vice versa?)

By Danielle Sloan

Cheeky Hybrid Capuchin Monkey (Cebus) by Phillip Ritz

What makes human cognition unique from that of other animals? This question is far from new and has an extensive history here at Vassar, where Margaret Floy Washburn spent her career searching for possible answers. In her 1908 book, The Animal Mind, she expressed her belief that gaining knowledge on animal cognition is highly similar to doing so on our own, both being derived by the inference of observed behavior. She believed that our actions vary from the actions of animals by degree and not by kind.

Recently, Marc Hauser, professor of psychology, biological anthropology, and organismic and evolutionary biology in Harvard’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences, has theorized that there may indeed be specific differences in mental capacity between humans and non-humans (Hauser, 2005). Hauser has conducted research in various fields of cognitive science including animal behavior and communication, the evolution of language, domain-specific systems of knowledge, and morality. He says this so-called “humaniqueness” is a set of evolved mechanisms that differentiate human and animal thought. These mechanisms consist of key differences which make humans capable of creating imaginative solutions to new problems. The four unique elements of human thought are the ability to combine and recombine various types of information and knowledge to gain new understanding; to apply the same solution to one problem to a different situation; to create and understand symbolic representations of computation and sensory data; and to separate modes of thought from raw sensory and perceptual data.

According to Hauser, these key abilities have created new paths of evolution that other animals have not utilized, creating the foundation upon which cultural evolution has been constructed. He believes that animals have “laser beam” intelligence, in which there are specific solutions for specific problems. In reference to tool-use, a specific tool has a specific function. In comparison, humans have “floodlight” intelligence, which allows us to apply a certain solution to multiple problems. Other animals are capable of this kind of intelligence, but in highly limited ways when compared with humans. Hauser says the cognitive gap between humans and other “smart species” such as chimps, elephants, and dolphins is “greater than that between those animals and worms”.

What sports do for your brain

By Matt Pearce

Photo by Ken Wooldridge

When you think about it, exercising and playing sports requires the stimulation of many different areas of the brain.  The medulla, which is located at the base of the brain stem, controls ones heartbeat and breathing.  The cerebellum, also known as the “little brain,” is attached to the rear of the brainstem and is crucial in coordinating movement and balance.  Additionally, the hypothalamus is necessary for maintenance activities such as homeostasis and body temperature (Myers, 2006).  But what does exercising and playing sports do for the brain in return?

Exercising and playing sports have both long term and short terms effects on brain function.  Immediately following physical activity, the verbal memory of athletes is worse than when the athletes are resting. However, physical activity has a minimal impact on visual memory, motor processing speed and reaction times.  In a recent study, 102 male and female athletes were gathered in order to engage in a test that analyzed the affects of exercise and physical activity on brain function.  The control group rested for fifteen minutes and the exercise group underwent strenuous exercise for fifteen minutes.  Immediately following the fifteen minutes, both groups took an Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Test.  The test results showed that the verbal memory scores of the exercise group were much less than the control group.  Perhaps this phenomenon occurs because the areas of the brain associated with vision and the senses, homeostasis, movement, and balance are all activated while the parts of the brain associated with memory are not activated.  This causes somewhat of a delay in the efficiency of ones short-term memory.

While brain function may be slightly diminished immediately following physical activity, overall brain function seems to increase with the presence of regular physical activity.  Charles Hillman of the University of Illinois conducted a test that collected data on 241 individuals from the ages of 15-71.  Each individual reported how physically active he or she was and also completed a series of task performance capabilities tests.  The results showed that the more physically active individuals exhibited enhanced reaction times, improved task performance, and greater response accuracy (University Of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign).  The constant activation and use of the brain for reactions and movement enhances and improves this specific region of the brain.  Although physical activity has been proven to slightly hinder memory functions, it enhances reaction times, task performance, and response accuracy while have little to no long-term effect on memory.

References

Covassin, T.,  Weiss L., Powell, J. and   Womack, C. (2007), Effects of a maximal exercise test on neurocognitive function [abstract]. British Journal of Sports Medicine 41, 370-374. Retrieved November 13, 2008 from http://bjsm.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/41/6/370.

Myers, D. G. (2006) Psychology (8th ed. in Modules). New York: Worth.

[No author] (2007). Does exercise affect brain function? Peak Performance [Web site]. Retreived October 10, 2008 from http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/does-exercise-affect-brain-function-35945.

University Of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign (2006, December 20). “Exercise Appears To Improve Brain Function Among Younger People.” ScienceDaily. Retrieved  October 14  2008 from http://www.sciencedaily.com­ /releases/2006/12/061219122200.htm.

Another example of the confirmation bias?

The new government of Liberia has every reason to fear a coup attempt. A long civil war has left the country in shaky condition, and President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf and her cabinet must worry that a disgruntled faction will attempt to seize power. So they were probably disturbed, but not surpised, to discover a huge cache of weapons, evidence of an impending attack.

But that stash of weapons, which would have proven that the fear of a coup was well-founded, turned out to be a pile of junk. It is a familiar story, that we find the evidence that supports our theories, because that is what we look for. Psychologists call this the confirmation bias.