Conformity can be risky business

by Charley Button

Conformity By Simon aka Flyblog

You leave the bar with your friends to head home for the night. They cross the street despite the red hand signaling “Don’t Walk.” You weigh the potential risk of oncoming traffic against ostracization from your group. In this scenario, you can either break the law by jaywalking or break with your friends momentarily. A self-preservation instinct to maintain group identity conflicts with your concern for safety and your law-abiding conscience.

When social and internal pressures compete, societal expectations habitually win out to the detriment of the individual. According to research by McGhie, Lewis, and Hyde (2011), the more you identify with a group, the more likely you are to conform to group behaviors such as “drink walking.” Their study examined the influence of psychosocial factors on individuals’ intentions to drink walk, on a scale of 1 to 7, across four scenarios. These scenarios manipulated the independent variables of high/low conformity and high/low group identity. Each incorporated a risky crossing situation, such as an intoxicated pedestrian walking against a red hand signal. Of the 151 Australian undergraduate students given this questionnaire, a large majority of individuals admitted elevated intentions to drink walk in the presence of their “closest friends” (high group identity), or when their friends were crossing in spite of the red hand signal (high conformity). When alone or with strangers (lacking group identity), subjects reported significantly lower intentions to disobey signals.

In heightened stakes, prioritizing “fitting in” over safety can lead to more serious misjudgments than ignoring pedestrian signals. Research suggests that juvenile crime is strongly influenced by peer behavior, as argued by Patacchini and Zenou (2009). Gang activity accounts for a large portion of underage lawbreaking and demonstrates the impact of neighborhood on social activities and on attitude toward the law. Patacchini and Zenou’s study revealed that petty crimes seem to be inspired by observed behavior of peers and replicated within groups, according to a desire to conform to the group’s norm. Criminal behavior of adolescents can rarely be explained on an individual basis.

In many circumstances, the need for group identity somehow overrides concern for safety, legality, or truth. Young people especially will risk their health and go against their better (individual) judgment, assimilating to a crowd’s bad decision. As Asch (1951) discovered, individuals will doubt their own judgment of the length of a line when contradicted by a group of at least three people. In order to blend in we disregard what our own eyes perceive, even when the norm is incorrect or inadvisable.

Whether it is jumping into the road or jacking a car, you are more likely to do it if your friends are. Take note though: the evolutionary importance of group identity is only beneficial if large numbers contribute to survival. When the group makes bad decisions, the individual’s wellbeing should take priority. To quote everybody’s mother, “If your friends walked off a cliff, would you follow them?”

TV for Babies?

by Nicole Bronson

Wathing TV by roxeteer

Did you ever watch Barney or Sesame Street growing up?   Nowadays, in addition to Barney and Sesame Street, there are even more TV shows aimed at kids, ranging from a sponge that lives under the sea to a little Spanish-speaking girl who explores with her monkey friend!  There is even an entire TV channel, BabyFirst , which is devoted to TV programs for babies.  Technology, TV especially, seems to be more frequently targeting young kids as well as babies (Christakis & Zimmerman, 2009).  And despite warnings  that early TV exposure should not occur in children under 2 years of age, many parents still allow their children to watch TV younger than this age.  My best friend claims her 2 and 3-year old niece and nephew first started watching TV as soon as they were born! What parents may not know is that by allowing their children to watch TV at very young ages, they may be negatively impacting their children’s future cognitive performance and brains.

A  study conducted at Wake Forest University (2007)  investigated whether or not watching teletubbies teaches 15-24 month-old children new words.  The lead researcher, Marina Krcmar, compared 15-24 month-old children’s abilities to learn new words from teletubbies to their abilities to learn new words from a present adult speaker.  Interestingly, children were much better learning words from responsive adults than from the television program.  Thus, it seems learning new words at very young ages entails interaction with present, human teachers.  Children under the age of 2 may not be reaching their full cognitive and language potential learning from a TV, instead of an adult.

Also acknowledging the importance of determining the relationship between television children’s learning abilities,  the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recently released a new policy statement  about technology use by children younger than two.  The new statement was created in lieu of technological advancements and new research that has been conducted since the original policy statement was released in 1999.  The original policy statement discouraged media exposure for children under the age of 2.  Meanwhile, the new policy statement also discourages media exposure for this age group, while additionally providing more scientifically backed reasons for why media exposure should be avoided.  Similar to the Wake Forest University study, this new policy claims children under 2 cannot comprehend what they are watching, and therefore do not get much educational benefit from it.  Additionally, media exposure may exert negative health effects on children under age 2, just as it has been shown to do in preschool and elementary school children.  These negative health effects may include increased aggression, attentional problems, sleep troubles and obesity.  Even simply having the TV on in the background may have negative effects on children under age 2.  Focusing on the TV rather than their child, parents may inadvertently take away from the quality of parent-child interactions.  This long list of potential adverse effects due to early media exposure was sufficient enough for the AAP to reaffirm the claim they made in 1999 and continue to discourage media use by children less than 2 years of age.

With an increasing number of children under the age of 2 watching television, it’s important to understand if television does actually induce detrimental effects and if so, how exactly it exerts these effects.  Adverse effects may be influenced by television’s impact on brain development that is occurring very rapidly in children at an early age (Siegler, DeLoache & Eisenberg, 2011).  Although babies’ are born with the majority of neurons they will have for the rest of their lives, many changes occur within and between their neurons, especially early in life.  One such change that takes place is called arborization, where neurons’ dendrites grow and differentiate.  It literally looks like a tree! The development does not end there, however, as neurons then begin to form connections with thousands of other neurons in what is called synaptogenesis.  So many connections are made, however, that some must be pruned.  This synaptic pruning—loss of neuronal connections—occurs in about 40% of the synapses and is mediated by a “use it or lose it” phenomenon.  Basically experience is key in determining which synapses are used and therefore kept and which synapses are not used and therefore pruned.  Sensory experiences babies encounter early on in life are extremely important then for signaling, which neurons are appropriate to maintain and which are appropriate to prune.  The major concern with TV exposure for babies is that it takes away from critical sensory experiences they would have had if not watching TV.  As most TV watching is a passive experience, children are not being exposed to different types of stimuli—olfactory, tactile, gustatory—they may be exposed to if not watching TV.  A member of the AAP Council on Communication and Media, Dr. Brown, recommends that babies, instead of watching television, engage in unstructured play.  Unstructured play is important for motor development, problem solving and creative thinking and thus contributes greatly to sensory experiences.  Furthermore, with less TV distractions, parents and children may be able to interact more, potentially leading to better language development in the child.  Physical interactions are key for sensory development and cannot be sufficiently replaced by a video.

How the brain reacts to attractiveness

By 105 Student

Composite images, used to evaluate what features raters found attractive

When you see an attractive person walking down the street you may turn your head to look at him or her. When you see everyone else, they may just be blurs as you pass by on the street. What is the reason you look at the attractive person? Why do humans find some people attractive and others not? The answer lies within the brain.

New research being done by psychologist Nancy Etcoff shows that when human beings see an attractive person the reward centers in the brain fire. Not only this, but humans can differentiate between levels of attractiveness by how heavily reward circuits fire in the brain when different pictures of attractive people are shown to them.   Could the reward centers fire so much that one could become addicted to the beauty of one person…perhaps accounting for love? Yes, many other things factor into the development of a relationship, but stimulation of reward centers in the brain surely help the process. As Psychologist John R. Buri has shown, initial attraction to a person is just a powerful wave of neurotransmitters sent our way.  This essentially creates a brain flooding of many different rewards, including Epinephrine, Dopamine, Phenyl ethylamine and Endorphins. Such powerful rewards for such surface level beauty can suggest many things, including an explanation for the commonly held belief that attractive people are more successful in life. This may possibly be because of the physiological response to seeing an attractive face, and with time and repeated exposure, an addiction, or obsession with a certain person. One would be more likely for instance to hire a person they found to be more attractive because they are rewarded chemically in the brain for being around that person.

Does this mean that universally brains can recognize certain features as attractive and that human brains will reward us for seeing beautiful people? Scientist Gad Saad, seems to suggest so in his article discussing the universal beauty metrics he has argued exist in society.  He argues that although there are some different standards of beauty among different cultures, there are universal beauty metrics in our world that exist everywhere, including a universal preference for symmetric faces and clear skin.

Sleepless

By Haley Tanenbaum

Sleepless by pittaya

Everyone can remember a frustrating night of sleeplessness.  You are lying in bed for hours, unable to fall asleep.  Perhaps you were preoccupied with worries from the day before, over energized, or simply just not able to doze off.  Whatever the reason, sleepless nights are unbearable, and for years scientists have been working to develop medicines that can help people fall asleep and stay asleep.  There are countless sleeping medications on the market today.  The question is: are these sleeping pills helpful or harmful?
Here’s a little bit of background—sleep consists of alternating periods of what scientists refer to as REM sleep and of non-REM sleep.  REM sleep is classified by rapid eye movement, which is absent in non-REM sleep.  Non-REM sleep consists of stages 1 through 4, which feature increasingly slow and steady brain waves.   REM sleep occurs in the 5th and final stage of sleep.   Most commonly, when people fall asleep they have a long period of non-REM sleep and then a short period of REM sleep .
Why is sleep so important?  First of all, sleep gives the brain time to heal.  While a person is sleeping, the brain repairs and restores brain tissue as well as neurons (Myers, 2007).  Sleep also helps our memories.  In a study by Kimberly Fenn and others in 2003, it was shown that people who were trained to remember tasks recalled them better after a good night’s sleep than after hours of being awake.
Sleeping pills are a fast and easy way for the typical sleep-deprived student or workaholic to catch up on their z’s.  Though these pills may help you maintain your energy on a day-to-day basis, in the long run, they are harmful.  A six-year study conducted by Daniel Kripke of the University of California, San Diego  used more than a million adults between the ages of 30 to 102.  Kripke found that those who took sleeping pills every night had a greater risk of death than those who only took them occasionally.  In addition, the risk of death for people who took sleeping pills occasionally was 10 to 15 percent higher than people who never used sleeping pills at all.
So, the next time you find yourself tossing and turning in the dead of night, don’t reach for the pill bottle. Instead of popping an Ambien, try some warm milk or the good old counting sheep trick…
References

Myers, David G. (2007). Psychology (eighth edition in modules). New York:
Worth Publishers.

WebMD (2005-2006). Sleep 101. Retrieved October 8, 2008, from

http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/sleep-101.

Nature International Weekly Journal of Science. Consolidation During Sleep of
Perpetual Learning of Spoken Language.  Retrieved October 8, 2008, from

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6958/full/nature01951.html.

Live Science.  Sleep Deprivation: The Great American Myth. Retrieved October
8,2008, from

http://www.livescience.com/health/060323_sleep_deprivation.html

The fundamental thing

by 105 Student

25/365 Days - Violin by athena.

When an object is struck, the energy from the strike transfers to the molecules of the object, causing them to vibrate.  These vibrations produce sinusoidal waves that carry to our ears and are then interpreted as sound in our brain (Taylor, 1992). But when the object vibrates, it is actually doing so at multiple frequencies at once, producing many waves our brain perceives as one sound.  So contrary to the single note we hear, the sound is actually composed of waves vibrating at many frequencies simultaneously, producing multiple pitches.  Of these pitches, the lowest one (the slowest frequency produced) we refer to as the “fundamental frequency”: the pitches above this frequency are called “overtones.”  Mathematically, these overtones are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (at least when the sound is harmonic, meaning it contains a distinctive pitch/tone).  For example, if a string vibrates 110 times a second (110Hz), the overtones would be 2×110 (220Hz), 3×110(330Hz), and so forth until the overtones became too high for us to hear.  Again, though, our brain perceives all of these frequencies as one pitch, the fundamental frequency(Levitin, 2007).

In fact, our brains are so adapted to this phenomenon that, even without the presence of the fundamental frequency (such as when a note is artificially simulated with all pitches except the fundamental), we would still perceive the sound as the original note, the fundamental pitch.  For example, if a scientist wanted to create a note with the fundamental frequency of 210Hz, the scientist could actually create this sound by simulating 210’s overtones (420Hz, 630Hz, 840Hz, …) to create a hybrid note that, while lacking the fundamental, still sounds just like the fundamental pitch, 210Hz. This phenomenon where our brain fills in the missing sound is called restoration of the missing fundamental (Levitin, 2007).
In an experiment by Petr Janata (1997), electrodes were placed in the inferior colliculus (part of the auditory system) of a barn owl. A version of Strauss’s “The Blue Danube Waltz” simulated with all but the notes’ fundamental frequency was then played for the owl.  The electrodes output (what the owl’s brain was essentially perceiving), was played back via a small amplifier.  What was heard was “The Blue Danube Waltz,” fundamental frequency and all, indicating that the brain, with or without the actual pitch, will hear the fundamental frequency.  The neurons in our inferior colliculus actually fire at the same rate as the missing frequency.  

Mindful meditation mitigates misery

by Carson Robinson

7 - Meditation by connerdowney

This past fall, I took a free, six-session meditation course offered at my college. The particular program was based on Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), which integrates Buddhist and scientific approaches to stress.  Each session was 90 minutes long, and involved both discussions and exercises, including supine, seated and walking meditation, guided by occasional instructions.

MBSR fosters several general attitudes, derived from Buddhism. For example, “beginner’s mind” perceives everything as if for the first time, “non-judgment” is neutral observation of one’s own actions and experiences, and “non-striving” is letting go of objectives, especially in the practice of meditation itself. Mindfulness itself is the maintenance of attention in the context of these attitudes. During seated meditation, the program’s central activity, one concentrates in turn on the breath, the body, sound, and, finally, thoughts.

Meditation takes discipline; a consistent practice must continue for weeks, even months, before it starts to change you. It is frustrating, especially for the restless and distracted (the very people that the program was designed for!). The classic seated posture hurts the knees, and I often experienced an inexplicable dysphoria build during meditation, as well as the recurring concern: “is this really worth doing?”

MBSR was developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn, a professor at University of Massachussetts Medical School, who began teaching the course in 1979. The complete course is much more intense than the one I took, and MBSR is intended not only to relieve the stress of college life, but the suffering of serious medical conditions. MBSR is eight weeks long, with weekly two-hour sessions, several additional classes and meditation as homework (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992).

The riddle of personality and sport

by Shannon Fleming

Vassar College Womens Volleyball

Most of us at one point or another have played or participated in a sport, whether it is volleyball, tennis, karate or pole-vaulting.  Have you ever sat back and wondered why you chose that particular sport to play besides the simple fact that you love participating in it?  Recent studies have shown that the complex of multiple personality traits that composes each individual may be a significant factor in which sport you prefer to play.  Traits can be described as people’s characteristic behaviors and conscious motives.  The broadest category of personality traits involves extraversion and introversion. People reflecting traits of extraversion tend to be excitable, outgoing, lively, sociable and impulsive.  They love the lime-light, work well in groups, and tend to dislike being alone for long periods of time.  People reflecting traits of introversion tend to be reserved, reclusive, thoughtful, calm, and rational.  They are more interested in their own mental self, work better alone, and are controlled in social situations, preferring closer, more personal relationship. Although traits of introversion and extroversion are reflective of personality, that doesn’t mean that everyone is classified as one or the other, many people have traits associated with both extraversion and introversion (Myers, 2007).

In a study done by Urska Dobersek and Cart Bartling (2007), athletes from four different sports, three individual sports and one team sport, and non-athletes were given standard personality tests including the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire which measured emotionality and tough-mindedness and the Global 5 survey, which measured extraversion, introversion, emotional stability, orderliness, accommodations and intellect. Each subject’s personality traits were viewed in association with the sport they preferred and conclusions were drawn between personality traits and were linked to the type of sport preferred.  The study showed significant differences in individuals who played team sports, like volleyball, and people who played individual sports, like tennis, track and golf.   Participants on the volleyball team, a team sport, tended to display more traits associated with introversion such as being reliable and thoughtful.  Learning to cooperate with other players and sharing the recognition for a win with other people tend to require being less bold and outgoing, and instead, being calmer, rational, and aware of surroundings.  Participants of individual sports, where the pressure is all on you to perform reflected traits of extraversion such as being outgoing, energetic, spontaneous and to some extent egotistical.

Black Friday

By Evgeny Bulat

Photo by Toban Black

[Editor's note: This post was written in the Fall of 2007.  Today's "Black Friday" looks to be even more impacted by a weak economy.]

Having stuffed myself full of Thanksgiving turkey last Thursday, I had only a faint desire to get up the following morning for the exclusive-ultimate-all-time-blowout-of-a-day that is the infamous Black Friday. But apparently, I was not alone: According to a New York Times article, the blind consumerist spirit that usually unites many, if not all, of the early birds on Black Friday was not there this season, as more and more shoppers showed restraint and pragmatism about what to buy for the holidays. Best Buy, Target, and Wal-Mart were the chains of choice, while high-profilers like Nordstrom and Abercrombie and Fitch greeted smaller crowds.

This made me further consider the general study of consumer psychology. Lars Perner, Ph.D., assistant professor of clinical marketing at the Marshall School of Business at UCS, points out several techniques, among them segmentation, in consumer analysis. More specifically, segmentation involves separating the general population into distinct groups that are as different from one another as possible, and then seeing how each group’s impulses and beliefs affect its consuming habits. There are other important techniques he discusses.

Having then reread the New York Times article, I discovered a trail of inconsistencies. The author mentions that high gas prices and a bad real estate market, among other things, may have accounted for what is allegedly the “weakest” shopping season in 5 years. On the other hand, there is also mention of the fact that there were still typically huge crowds flooding the stores and that, after all is said and done, “shoppers might have spent more this year than last.” This evidence in combination with the shift in store preference cannot be accounted by simply a “weak” season. Sure, consumers sought more discounts and were pickier rather than impulsive; however, they still spent more money in general. Family funds may not be all that is at play.

And now I return to consumer psychology. It may be helpful to segment the Black Friday shopper population to see if certain groups exhibit a trend completely different from that of the whole. Another thing to consider would be the perception aspect, or what advertisements, among other things, the consumers are exposed to. There may have been a shift in advertising patterns that favored mainstream chains.
If anyone else has any ideas, please do not hesitate to comment.

The Etiology of Schizophrenia, Revisited

by Silvana Rueda

Affecting about 1% of the American population, schizophrenia (http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml) is a severe brain disorder characterized by distinct changes in perceptions, emotions, behavior, and thoughts. Even though the signs and symptoms of schizophrenia have been well studied and researched, the causes and development of this serious psychotic disorder are not well understood. However, researchers at the University of Massachusetts Medical School and the Baylor College of Medicine have recently discovered crucial insights into the molecular basis of schizophrenia, increasing public knowledge and understanding of the etiology of this disorder.

According to the study (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071016181215.htm), reported on by Science Daily, schizophrenia may develop due in part to defects in biochemical reactions which regulate the activity of the gene GAD1, involved in producing a vital chemical messenger in the brain. During normal development of the prefrontal cortex, the GAD1 gene is turned on at progressively higher rates; researchers discovered that patients with schizophrenia lacked this normal increase. GAD1 produces an enzyme crucial to the synthesis of the neurotransmitter GABA, which helps direct the flow of electrical traffic in the brain, allowing for the communication of neurons. Researchers also discovered another enzyme, MII1, which may also affect GABA synthesis. Evidence was found that alterations in MII1 activity interfere with the process of histones, small proteins which must undergo a temporary structural change in order for GABA production to take place. Furthermore, researchers also found that antipsychotic drugs like clozapine correct relevant defects in gene regulation in mice. However, clozapine, along with various other antipsychotic medications, are accompanied by an array of severe and unpleasant side effects.

This study adds to the growing body of knowledge on the etiology of schizophrenia. Similar to the dopamine hypothesis, this research shows that schizophrenia may develop as a result of abnormal neurotransmitter activity. However, more likely is the fact that schizophrenia is due to an array of brain defects and malfunctions, and is not simply the effect of a single abnormality. Nevertheless, this study increases our understanding of schizophrenia and promotes the research and development of new antipsychotic medications and treatments.

Sources:
Science Daily, How Schizophrenia Develops: Major Clues Discovered
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071016181215.htm

National Institute of Mental Health, Schizophrenia
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia/index.shtml

Scents and Judgments

by Silvana Rueda

Scents and Judgments

It’s natural for human beings to make judgments. In fact, from an evolutionary perspective, it’s even desirable and advantageous. As social beings, humans need to form impressions to relate to others, to determine whether they will hurt or help them by trying to understand why the act the way they do. These natural assessments are influenced by a variety of factors, including facial expression and body language. Such nonverbal behavior can help someone unconsciously determine whether the person walking towards them at night is a threat or an ally, for example (Gazzaniga & Heatherton, 2007).

Nonverbal actions and expressions aren’t the only factors that act on how we form impressions of others, however. New research has actually suggested another, previously unconsidered influence: smell. In a study reported on by Science Daily, researchers from Northwestern University discovered that the most minute scents play a role in determining our judgments on others. In the study, participants were asked to smell bottles containing three different scents, which were classified according to pleasantness: lemon, ethereal (a neutral scent) and sweat. The bottles were also organized by scent intensity and concentration – some bottles contained barely perceptible odors, while others maintained a strong and distinguishable smell. After having smelled the bottles, each participant was shown a face with a neutral expression and were asked to evaluate the amiability of this person. Their assessment ranged from extremely likeable to extremely unlikable. The results of the study showed that judgments about likeability were more inclined to be biased when smell was barely noticeable; subliminal scents were more likely to influence the participants’ judgments than conscious smells.
Such research is crucial in understanding how people evaluate others. The scientific community is gathering more and more evidence to illustrate the importance of subliminal sensory input—especially olfaction, which is typically underestimated—on social judgments…which goes to show that you generally “follow your nose,” whether you’re conscious of it or not.

Additional Reference

Gazzaniga, M. S. and Heatherton, T.F. (2006). Psychological Science (2nd ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.